Aztec Zodiac

Introduction to the Aztec Zodiac

Among the myriad of ancient civilizations, the Mesoamerican world holds a special place for its unique blend of cultures, traditions, and profound cosmic insights. The Aztec zodiac, in particular, serves as a testament to their intricate understanding of the universe and their place within it.

Brief about Mesoamerican Civilizations:

Mesoamerican civilizations, predominantly spanning present-day Mexico and Central America, have left an indelible mark on history. The Olmecs, known for their colossal stone heads, laid much of the cultural groundwork. Following them, the Mayans, with their famed calendar and advanced understanding of astronomy, flourished across the Yucatan Peninsula. But it was the Aztecs, sometimes known as the Mexica, who would rise as one of the last and most dominant of the Mesoamerican civilizations. Establishing their majestic city of Tenochtitlan on the islets of Lake Texcoco, they expanded their empire through a blend of diplomacy, warfare, and an intricate tribute system. Their zenith, marked by sophisticated art, architecture, and a deep spiritual connection with nature, was eventually disrupted by the Spanish conquest in the 16th century.

Overview of the Significance of Astrology in Aztec Culture:

Astrology was far more than a mere interest for the Aztecs; it was intertwined with their very ethos. Every element of their daily life, be it rituals, agriculture, or governance, bore the touch of their celestial beliefs. For the Aztecs, the sky was a canvas upon which the tales of gods, heroes, and the mysteries of existence were painted. Their zodiac was closely tied to their calendar systems, especially the Tonalpohualli or the ritual calendar. With twenty distinct signs, each echoing various aspects of nature, divinity, and mythology, the zodiac was a guide for understanding one's role and destiny in the vast cosmos. It wasn't just about predicting the future but deciphering the intricate dance between divine will and human agency.

In delving deeper into the Aztec zodiac, we unlock not only the secrets of their astrological practices but also the very essence of a civilization that saw the universe not as a distant expanse but an intimate part of their identity.

The Aztec Zodiac and Its Twelve Signs

In a world before telescopes and advanced astronomy, the Aztecs looked to the skies, decoding its patterns, and drawing connections between celestial events and earthly occurrences. These observations resulted in the Aztec zodiac system, different from the commonly known Western zodiac but equally significant. Here are the details about this Mesoamerican astrological system:

The Creation of the Aztec Zodiac:

Unlike the 12-sign zodiac of Western cultures, the Aztec system was primarily based on their calendar, particularly the Tonalpohualli, or the 260-day ritual calendar. This calendar was divided into 20 periods, and while it's not a zodiac in the exact sense we understand in the West, it served a similar purpose. Each of these periods, or 'signs', was associated with a particular god or natural force, governing aspects of life, destiny, and personality for those born under it. This calendar played a pivotal role in Aztec rituals, ceremonies, and everyday life, with every day having its significance and governed by specific deities.

Understanding the Twelve Signs:

It's important to clarify that the traditional Aztec system did not have twelve signs as the Western zodiac does. Instead, it had twenty, each associated with various animals, elements, and other symbols. Some of the notable signs include Cipactli (Crocodile), Ehecatl (Wind), Calli (House), Cuetzpalin (Lizard), Coatl (Snake), and Miquiztli (Death). Every sign was associated with a specific set of characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and destinies. For instance, those born under the sign of 'Ehecatl' were believed to possess qualities of the wind – free-spirited, adaptable, and sometimes unpredictable.

The Cultural and Spiritual Significance:

The Aztec zodiac was more than a system of astrology; it was a cultural and spiritual compass. It provided guidance on everything from the best times to plant and harvest to the most auspicious days for ceremonies, battles, or journeys. Individuals would consult priests, who were also astrologers, to understand their zodiac sign's implications and how best to navigate the challenges and opportunities it presented. Moreover, the signs were deeply interwoven with the Aztecs' religious beliefs. Gods and goddesses governed each period of the Tonalpohualli, and rituals were performed to honor and appease them, ensuring balance and harmony in both the celestial and earthly realms. This system was not just about understanding oneself but was a reflection of the Aztecs' profound respect for nature, divinity, and the interconnectedness of all things.

Deep Dive into the 20 Aztec Zodiac Signs

The Aztec zodiac, intrinsically tied to their 260-day Tonalpohualli calendar, offers a rich tapestry of signs, each representing a distinct energy and attribute. These signs provided both practical and spiritual guidance for the Aztecs. Let's delve into each of these 20 signs and understand their symbolism and significance:

Cipactli (Crocodile):

Derived from ancient Mesoamerican beliefs, Cipactli represents the foundational energies of existence. Symbolizing both the earth and water elements, Cipactli encapsulates the primordial chaos from which all life emerged. In Aztec beliefs, the universe was born from this chaos, and the crocodile, with its affinity for both land and water, was a metaphor for this initial cosmic state. People born under this sign were not only seen as grounded and connected to the earth but also fluid, adaptable, and in tune with their deeper emotions.

Ehecatl (Wind):

Ehecatl, the deity of wind in Aztec culture, embodies the idea of change, movement, and the invisible forces that influence life. Wind's unpredictable nature became a metaphor for the unforeseen changes that shape one's journey. People born under this sign often exhibit qualities like adaptability, a yearning for freedom, and sometimes, an intrinsic restlessness, as they're driven by the unseen currents of life.

Calli (House):

More than just a physical dwelling, Calli encapsulates the spiritual essence of home. It signifies the sanctuary where one's spirit finds peace, protection, and nourishment. In Aztec culture, the home was a sacred space, a nexus of familial bonds and ancestral traditions. Those born under this sign often possess a strong sense of duty, are deeply familial, and value the sanctity of personal bonds.

Cuetzpalin (Lizard):

The lizard, with its ability to shed its skin, has long been a symbol of regeneration and renewal. In Aztec mythology, Cuetzpalin's transformative nature is a reflection of life's cyclical nature – birth, growth, decay, and rebirth. Those under this sign are perceived to have the innate ability to bounce back from adversity, constantly reinventing themselves.

Coatl (Snake):

In many ancient cultures, the snake is a symbol of wisdom, duality, and the cyclical nature of existence. For the Aztecs, Coatl was not just a creature of the earth, but also a celestial entity, often associated with the heavens and the underworld. Those born under this sign are often seekers, delving deep into life's mysteries, possessing innate intuition and a capability to perceive beyond the ordinary.

Miquiztli (Death):

Death, in Aztec philosophy, wasn't the end but a phase in the eternal cycle of life. Miquiztli reminds us of the impermanence of physical existence and the eternal nature of the spirit. People under this sign are deeply philosophical, often embracing life's transient nature and are seen as guides who help others navigate the complexities of existence.

Mazatl (Deer):

The deer, graceful and alert, embodies qualities like intuition, sensitivity, and vigilance. In Aztec folklore, Mazatl's keen senses symbolized a deep connection to the surrounding environment and an acute awareness of both the seen and unseen realms. People born under this sign often possess heightened empathy, intuition, and a serene yet alert nature.

Tochtli (Rabbit):

Tochtli is a symbol of fertility, abundance, and the moon's phases in Aztec cosmology. The moon, with its cyclical nature, governs the rhythms of life, and the rabbit, known for its reproductive prowess, became a symbol of life's abundance. Those under this sign are vivacious, energetic, and have an innate ability to manifest their desires.

Atl (Water):

Water, a primal element, is the life essence, representing fluidity, depth, and the vast subconscious realm. Atl signifies the deep emotional undercurrents, intuition, and the mysteries of the psyche. Those born under Atl often have a profound emotional depth, capable of profound empathy and understanding.

Itzcuintli (Dog):

In Mesoamerican cultures, the dog was not just a loyal companion but also a guide for souls navigating the underworld. Itzcuintli represents unwavering loyalty, protection, and guidance. Those born under this sign are often the protectors, guiding lights for their loved ones, always ready to defend and support.

Ozomahtli (Monkey):

The monkey, with its playful and curious nature, embodies the spirit of joy, creativity, and innovation. Ozomahtli is a celebration of life's playful side, a reminder to not always take things too seriously. Individuals under this sign often have an infectious zest for life, are creative, and possess a unique ability to find joy in the mundane.

Malinalli (Grass):

Grass, which covers vast expanses of the earth, signifies resilience, adaptability, and life's interconnectedness. Malinalli reminds us of the strength that comes from unity and the importance of being grounded. People born under this sign often thrive in community settings and have an innate ability to connect with others.

Acatl (Reed):

The reed, tall and flexible, stands as a testament to growth, balance, and the harmony of existence. Acatl is about finding one's center amidst life's tumult. Those born under this sign often seek balance in all aspects of life, striving for harmony in their inner and outer worlds.

Ocelotl (Jaguar):

The jaguar, a formidable predator and a creature of the night, is a symbol of power, mystery, and the unseen world. Ocelotl, in Aztec mythology, was often associated with priests and shamans, individuals with the power to traverse the spiritual realms. Those born under this sign often have a magnetic personality, natural leadership skills, and a penchant for delving into life's deeper mysteries.

Cuauhtli (Eagle):

The eagle, soaring high above the earth, represents vision, freedom, and transcendence. Cuauhtli is about breaking boundaries and reaching new heights. Those born under this sign often have a unique perspective on life, ambitious goals, and an insatiable desire to achieve their highest potential.

Cozcacuauhtli (Vulture):

Often misunderstood, the vulture is a symbol of purification, transformation, and rebirth. Cozcacuauhtli, in its role as a scavenger, ensures the cycle of life continues by returning decay back to the earth, facilitating new growth. Those under this sign often play the role of catalysts, initiating change and guiding others through transformative phases.

Ollin (Movement):

Ollin, representing the ever-changing nature of existence, is a reminder of the dynamic interplay of forces that shape our journey. It's about embracing change, evolving, and understanding one's destiny. Those born under this sign are often at the forefront of change, driving progress and understanding that stagnation is antithetical to life.

Tecpatl (Flint Knife):

Sharp and precise, Tecpatl is a tool that cuts through illusions to reveal the core truth. This sign represents clarity, decisiveness, and transformation. People born under Tecpatl have an innate ability to discern truth from falsehood and often play the role of arbiters in their communities.

Quiahuitl (Rain):

Rain, a life-giving force, represents nourishment, fertility, and rejuvenation. Quiahuitl is a reminder of the cyclical nature of existence, the ebb and flow of life's fortunes. Those born under this sign are often seen as life's nurturers, bringing growth and sustenance to their communities.

Xochitl (Flower):

The flower, a symbol of beauty, potential, and the zenith of growth, represents life's fleeting moments of perfection. Xochitl is about savoring these moments, understanding the transient nature of beauty, and appreciating the cyclical pattern of bloom and wither. Those under this sign often have an aesthetic sensibility, valuing beauty in all its forms and seeking to create moments of joy and perfection in their surroundings.

Influence of Celestial Bodies in Aztec Culture:

For the Aztecs, the cosmos was not just a vast expanse above them, but a dynamic system closely intertwined with their daily lives, rituals, and their very understanding of existence. Each celestial body told a story, played a role in their myths, and had practical implications for their way of life.

Significance of Venus:

Venus held a particularly revered position in the Aztec astronomical and mythological landscape. Known as the morning and evening star, its luminous appearance was both a timekeeper and a symbol of divine influence.

1. Role as a Timekeeper: The cycles of Venus, especially its appearance as the morning star, were vital to the Aztec calendar system. Its heliacal rising, the first appearance of Venus at dawn, was a crucial event. The Aztecs meticulously tracked these cycles, noting the intervals between the planet's appearances and disappearances at dawn and dusk.
2. Association with Quetzalcoatl: The deity Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent, was often linked with Venus. Legends suggest that Quetzalcoatl was the morning star, representing Venus's dual nature as it appears both in the morning and evening. This dual nature was symbolic of death and rebirth in Aztec mythology.

Other Celestial Bodies:

1. The Sun: The sun, the most prominent celestial body, was central to the Aztecs. Representing the god Huitzilopochtli, the sun was seen as a warrior, fighting off darkness every night and being reborn every morning. This cyclical battle had implications for their daily life and rituals, with human sacrifices often made to nourish the sun and ensure its return.
2. The Moon: Tecciztecatl, the moon god, was another vital entity in the Aztec cosmos. While the sun's journey represented the daily cycle of life, death, and rebirth, the moon's phases were more mysterious and linked to various myths and tales. Its waxing and waning were often used in agricultural and ceremonial contexts.
3. Stars and Constellations: The stars were more than just twinkling lights for the Aztecs. They believed that the southern stars, especially around the region of the Milky Way, represented the souls of the dead. Constellations, particularly the Pleiades, played a role in their calendar system, marking specific times of the year.

The celestial bodies were not just astronomical entities for the Aztecs but were deeply embedded in their religious beliefs, daily practices, and their holistic understanding of life and the universe. Their perceptions of these bodies, combined with keen observational skills, framed a unique perspective of the cosmos, harmoniously fusing science with spirituality.

Divination and Rituals in the Aztec Zodiac

The Aztec society, being profoundly spiritual and interconnected with nature, utilized every tool at their disposal to decipher the will of the gods and predict the outcomes of various events. Among these tools, the zodiac played an instrumental role. Through it, the intricate dance of celestial bodies transformed into omens, guiding principles, and ceremonial directives.

How Priests Used the Zodiac for Divination:

Aztec priests, also known as tlamatinime or 'wise men', were skilled astronomers who dedicated their lives to studying the heavens. Through their observations, they gleaned insights into the natural world and the spiritual dimension. Here's how they harnessed the zodiac for divination:

1. Alignment with Terrestrial Events: The movement of celestial bodies, especially as interpreted through the zodiac signs, was correlated with earthly events like rainfall, droughts, or harvest periods. Priests would study these alignments to predict agricultural outcomes.
2. Birth Charts: Much like other ancient cultures, Aztecs believed that a person's fate was intertwined with the celestial conditions prevailing at their time of birth. Priests would draft an individual's birth chart, assessing their personality, strengths, weaknesses, and even potential life challenges based on the governing zodiac sign.
3. Predicting Societal Outcomes: The zodiac wasn't just for personal divination. Priests used it to predict larger events, like the outcomes of battles, the fate of the ruling class, or even potential natural disasters. Any unusual celestial activity, when interpreted through the lens of the zodiac, could be a sign from the gods.

Rituals Associated with Specific Signs:

Every zodiac sign in the Aztec calendar had its rituals, most of which were deeply intertwined with the natural world and the characteristics of the sign:

1. Ceremonies of Renewal: Some signs, especially those linked with beginnings or rebirth, were celebrated with rituals signifying renewal. These might include cleansing ceremonies, offerings, and dances.
2. Sacrificial Rites: Signs associated with powerful deities or significant celestial events often demanded more profound offerings. Sacrifices, both in terms of offerings and, in some instances, human sacrifices, were made to appease the gods and ensure harmony.
3. Agricultural Rituals: Signs that coincided with agricultural cycles - be it sowing, growth, or harvest - had rituals that sought the gods' blessings for bountiful yields. These included specific dances, songs, and prayers, often invoking the characteristics of the zodiac sign in question.

The Aztec zodiac was much more than a static set of symbols. It was a dynamic, living guide, influencing the daily lives, decisions, and spiritual practices of the Aztecs. Through divination and rituals, the zodiac bridged the gap between the earthly realm and the divine, offering insights and guidance in an ever-changing world.

Comparison with Other Mesoamerican Zodiacs

The Mesoamerican region, rich with various cultures and civilizations, witnessed the rise and fall of two particularly significant empires: the Aztecs and the Mayans. Both societies exhibited a profound understanding of celestial mechanics and developed their own unique systems of astrology. When we delve deeper into the zodiac signs and interpretations of these two civilizations, we notice both striking similarities and key differences.

Mayan Zodiac and Its Differences/Similarities with Aztec Signs

The Mayans, much like the Aztecs, based much of their astrology on the movements of the celestial bodies. However, the way they interpreted and integrated these observations into their daily lives varied considerably.

1. Structural Differences:
• Aztec System: The Aztec calendar, or the "tonalpohualli," is a 260-day calendar. It combines two interlocking cycles, one of 20 days (signs) and another of 13 numbers, producing 260 unique combinations or days.
• Mayan System: The Mayan Tzolk’in calendar is also a 260-day calendar. It similarly integrates a cycle of 20 day-signs with a cycle of 13 numbers. Despite the apparent similarity in structure, the day signs and their meanings in the Mayan system differ from those of the Aztecs.
2. Sign Interpretations:
• While both the Aztecs and Mayans had signs like the jaguar or the serpent, the interpretations, associated deities, and mythologies often differed. For example, while the Aztecs saw the jaguar as a warrior symbol, the Mayans viewed it as representative of leadership and strength, often linking it with the ruling class.
3. Integration with Daily Life:
• The Mayans, renowned for their architectural marvels like the observatories in Chichén Itzá, integrated their zodiac into architecture and urban planning. They used their zodiac to determine agricultural cycles, ceremonial events, and more. The Aztecs, on the other hand, used their zodiac more for ritualistic purposes and divination.
4. End of the World Predictions:
• The Mayan calendar gained global attention due to the 2012 "end of the world" interpretations. This stems from the end of a "Great Cycle" in the Mayan Long Count calendar. The Aztecs had their own set of prophecies and beliefs about world cycles, but they did not receive as much contemporary attention as the Mayan predictions.
5. Influences:
• The Mayan zodiac is believed to have Olmec roots, as the Olmecs are considered the mother civilization of Mesoamerica. The Aztecs, while having their unique interpretations, show influences from earlier Mesoamerican civilizations, including the Toltecs and potentially the Mayans.

While both the Aztec and Mayan zodiac systems reflect a deep-rooted connection to celestial observations and a quest to understand the interplay between the heavens and earth, they each offer a unique lens through which to view the universe. Their individual nuances, interpretations, and applications provide invaluable insights into the spiritual and cultural priorities of these ancient Mesoamerican civilizations.

Zodiac's Influence on Architecture and Art

The Mesoamerican civilizations, with the Aztecs at their zenith, showcased a blend of religious, astronomical, and artistic prowess. The Aztec's deep-seated belief in the significance of celestial events influenced not just their rituals and daily activities but also profoundly impacted their artistic and architectural expressions. The zodiac and its signs played a pivotal role in this, with each sign's attributes, legends, and associated deities finding representation in various forms of art and structural designs.

Representations of the Signs in Aztec Temples

The architectural marvels of the Aztecs were built not merely as places of worship but also as symbols of their cosmological beliefs. The temples were often aligned with celestial bodies, ensuring that the divine energy of the gods they worshipped was maximized.

1. Templo Mayor: Situated in the heart of Tenochtitlan, the Templo Mayor was dedicated to the gods Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc. Intricately carved symbols related to the zodiac signs were seen on the temple's pillars and walls. The double pyramid structure itself may have been influenced by the dual nature of many zodiac signs, representing both positive and negative traits.
2. Pyramid of the Sun and Pyramid of the Moon in Teotihuacan: While not purely Aztec, these structures' design and alignment have hints of zodiacal influences. The signs associated with the sun and moon, vital components of the Aztec zodiac, were prominently displayed on these pyramids.

Signs in Aztec Codices:

The Aztec codices are richly illustrated manuscripts that serve as a window into the world of the Aztecs before the Spanish conquest. Zodiac signs were prevalent in these codices, offering insights into Aztec astrology, divination, and rituals.

1. Codex Borbonicus: One of the most famous Aztec codices, it prominently features the tonalpohualli, or the 260-day ritual calendar. Each page displays a deity associated with a specific zodiac sign, with detailed annotations about their significance.
2. Codex Mendoza: This codex presents the history of the Aztec rulers and their conquests but also has depictions of the zodiac signs, hinting at the importance of celestial events in deciding conquest dates.

Zodiac Signs in Sculptures

Aztec sculptures were more than just art; they were statements of belief, showcases of history, and mediums of communication.

1. Stone of the Sun: Often misnamed the "Aztec Calendar Stone," this colossal sculpture features intricately carved symbols representing the zodiac signs surrounding the central face of the sun god.
2. Statues of Deities: Gods and goddesses associated with particular zodiac signs, such as Quetzalcoatl (the Feathered Serpent) or Tlaloc (god of rain), were often sculpted with zodiac symbols adorning their forms. These statues served both as objects of worship and as astronomical markers.

The Aztec's holistic approach to life ensured that their understanding of the zodiac and its significance was not confined to the spiritual or ritualistic realm. It permeated their artistic expressions and architectural marvels, ensuring that their cosmological beliefs would stand the test of time, etched in stone and ink for generations to admire and study.

Modern Interpretations and Influence of the Aztec Zodiac

In the modern age, with an evolving understanding of cultures and practices of the past, the Aztec zodiac continues to find its space amidst a myriad of ancient traditions. While the Western zodiac signs dominate most astrological discussions, the profound insights offered by the Aztec system offer a fresh perspective to those looking to navigate their celestial identities.

Astrologers and enthusiasts, always on the hunt for diverse systems, have found intrigue in the Aztec zodiac's nuanced interpretations. The 260-day Tonalpohualli calendar, distinctly different from the familiar 365-day cycle, has become a subject of study, especially for those looking to delve deeper into Mesoamerican astrology. While not mainstream, several astrological platforms and experts provide interpretations based on the Aztec signs, enriching their offerings with this ancient wisdom. These sessions often resonate with individuals looking for insights outside the more traditional zodiac frameworks.

Yet, it's not just in the secluded corners of astrological practice that the Aztec zodiac makes its presence felt. The vast world of pop culture, with its ever-observant eye, has not remained untouched by its allure. Film, literature, and music have intermittently incorporated elements of the Aztec zodiac, whether as symbolic references or central themes. The enigmatic nature of Mesoamerican beliefs, combined with the rich tapestry of legends associated with each sign, provides fertile ground for creative exploration.

Fashion and art, too, have embraced the profound symbolism of the Aztec zodiac. Tattoos inspired by Aztec signs have grown in popularity, with each inked symbol carrying a depth of meaning. Artists worldwide, looking to merge ancient motifs with contemporary designs, have turned to Aztec codices and sculptures, drawing inspiration from their intricate patterns and profound symbolism.

Beyond these realms, there's a resurgence of interest in indigenous practices and beliefs. As society leans towards a deeper understanding and appreciation of native cultures, the Aztec zodiac and its teachings find new proponents. Workshops, seminars, and courses centered around Mesoamerican astrology have seen a spike in participation, indicating a renewed fascination with the Aztec way of celestial understanding.

While the Aztec zodiac might not command the same universal recognition as its Western or Chinese counterparts, its influence in modern times is undeniable. From the realms of astrology to the broad stages of pop culture, this ancient system continues to intrigue, inspire, and inform the world about the depth and diversity of Mesoamerican cosmology.

The Rich Tapestry of Aztec Cosmic Beliefs and Their Everyday Impact

The Aztecs, an ancient civilization that flourished in the heart of modern-day Mexico, were profoundly influenced by their understanding of the cosmos. Their deep-rooted beliefs in celestial bodies, astronomical occurrences, and the natural world painted a vivid picture of a society that saw the universe as an intricate web of relationships and power dynamics.

At the core of Aztec cosmology was the notion that the universe was not just a distant, passive expanse. Instead, it was a living entity, a breathing organism that actively influenced the daily lives, fortunes, and fates of every individual. The heavens weren't just stars and planets, but gods and goddesses who played active roles in the unfolding drama of human existence. Every celestial event, be it an eclipse, a comet's passage, or the simple transition from day to night, had meaning and significance.

The precision with which the Aztecs monitored and documented these celestial happenings was nothing short of remarkable. Detailed charts, calendars, and codices traced the movement of stars, the phases of the moon, and the cycles of Venus. These weren't mere astronomical observations; they were a testament to the Aztecs' understanding that every celestial movement had repercussions on Earth. Crop cycles, festivals, sacrifices, and even wars were often scheduled according to these cosmic timelines.

But beyond these broad societal implications, the Aztec cosmos also played a deeply personal role in the lives of individuals. Just as we today might consult our zodiac signs for insights or guidance, the Aztecs turned to the stars for answers. Births, marriages, and other significant life events were often planned around favorable cosmic alignments. The belief was that aligning one's life with the rhythms of the cosmos would bring harmony, prosperity, and divine favor.

Similarly, the topography of the Aztec cities mirrored their cosmic beliefs. Temples and pyramids, meticulously aligned with specific stars or celestial events, dotted the cityscapes. These structures weren't just places of worship; they were physical embodiments of the Aztec's cosmic beliefs, bridging the gap between Earth and the heavens.

In essence, for the Aztecs, the universe was more than just a backdrop. It was an ever-present guide, a beacon that influenced every decision, from the grandest societal events to the most intimate personal moments. The heavens and their movements were a continuous dialogue between the gods and humanity, a conversation that shaped the very fabric of Aztec culture and daily life. This enduring cosmic connection reminds us of the profound ways in which our understanding of the universe can shape societies, cultures, and individual lives.